THE KNOWLEDGE LIBRARY

An illustrated guide to grape varieties, regions, and production methods.

Articles on grape varieties, regions, Appellations & winemaking, and producers.
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338 articles

Spain / Overview↗

Spain / Atlantic, Meseta, Mediterranean

Spain from the Atlantic, plateau, and Mediterranean perspective

On the Atlantic coast, inland plateaus, and Mediterranean coastline, both the distance from the sea and elevation differ. Compare Spanish regions on a map, which cannot be explained simply by heat and dryness.

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Spain / Appellations & winemaking↗

DOP / IGP / DO / DOCa

Distinguishing DOP & IGP from Maturation Indications

Protection systems for regions and the duration the wine spends are separate pieces of information. Read the label along two axes.

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Spain / Grapes↗

Tempranillo / Garnacha / Albariño / Verdejo

Connect major varieties to regions and winemaking processes.

Before adding synonyms, make sure you know where the same variety is used and for what purpose.

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Spain / Regions↗

Rioja

Rioja: Interpreting the three regions and ageing

Read Rioja Alta, Rioja Alavesa, Rioja Oriental, and aging statements separately.

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Spain / Regions↗

Ribera del Duero

Ribera del Duero: High inland Tempranillo

Read the elevation and climate of the Douro River valley separate from impressions about grape varieties and wine intensity.

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Spain / Regions↗

Rías Baixas

Rías Baixas: The sea and Albariño

Understand white wines from the Atlantic side through combinations of grape varieties, humid environments, and viticulture.

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Spain / Regions↗

Rueda / Verdejo

Rueda: Reading Verdejo as an inland white

Even among Spanish whites, Rías Baixas and Rueda differ by grape and region.

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Spain / Regions↗

Priorat / Garnatxa / Carinyena

Priorat: Reading vineyards through slopes and grape varieties

Do not directly link the soil name to flavor; break it down into slope, elevation, grape variety, and cultivation conditions.

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Spain / Regions↗

Jumilla / Monastrell

Jumilla: Monastrell and the Inland Southeast

There are uplands in the interior even on the Mediterranean side. Distinguish between broad regional names and the actual locations of vineyards.

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Spain / Appellations & winemaking↗

Rioja / Origin versus Ageing

Compare two Rioja wines on a two-axis chart

Even with the same maturation indication, the region differs, and even within the same region, maturation methods will change. Separate comparisons of origin and maturation indication.

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Spain / Appellations & winemaking↗

Cava / Guarda / Guarda Superior

Cava: Distinguish origin, time on lees, and sweetness/dryness

Treat Cava not as a single region or sweetness level, but as an appellation with a defined origin and processes.

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Spain / Appellations & winemaking↗

Jerez / Flor / Criaderas y Solera

Sherry: Understanding flor and solera separately

Biological and oxidative maturation are differences in environment. Read Solera as a management system that links different stages of maturation.

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Portugal / Overview↗

Portugal

Overview of Portugal: From the Atlantic to Inland and the Islands

By keeping track of the distance from the sea and position of the mountains, you can see the differences between neighboring regions.

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Portugal / Appellations & Winemaking↗

DOC / DOP / IGP

DOC, DOP, IGP: Read place names and production methods separately

Check the correspondence between DOC and DOP, and see what can be produced under each appellation name.

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Portugal / Grapes↗

Portuguese grape varieties

Key varieties: organize synonyms and blends

The same variety may be called by different names in different regions. Organize its synonyms and compare situations where it is used solo versus as a blend.

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Portugal / Regions↗

Vinho Verde

Vinho Verde: Don’t group all northwest Portuguese whites as one

Even in areas strongly affected by the Atlantic, there are locations that are less influenced by the sea.

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Portugal / Regions↗

Douro

Douro: understanding Port, red, and white from the same valley

Begin by not thinking of the region that produces Port as solely for fortified wines.

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Portugal / Regions↗

Dão

Dão: A Region Surrounded by Mountains and Encruzado

Grasp the location surrounded by mountains, multiple elevations, and both red and white varieties together.

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Portugal / Regions↗

Bairrada

Bairrada: Baga reds and sparkling wines

Red wines and sparkling wines made from Baga. Compare how base material and fermentation methods differ in the same region.

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Portugal / Regions↗

Alentejo

Alentejo: Differences within a hot, dry region

Consider the climate common to a broad region, and separately examine the mountainous areas within it.

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Portugal / Regions↗

Península de Setúbal

Setúbal Peninsula: Palmela and Moscatel

Organize the geographical indications and the two appellations on a single peninsula.

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Portugal / Appellations & Winemaking↗

Port wine / Fortification

Port fermentation: At what point is fortification carried out?

Do not explain sweetness solely by grape ripeness; focus on the method of arresting fermentation partway through.

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Portugal / Appellations & Winemaking↗

Vintage / LBV / Colheita

Understanding Port maturation: Distinguishing Vintage, LBV, and Colheita

You cannot tell whether wine spent more time in barrel or bottle just from the vintage year.

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Portugal / Appellations & Winemaking↗

Madeira / Estufagem / Canteiro

Madeira: Sweetness, Dryness, and the Two Methods of Heat-Aged Maturation

Read the method for stopping fermentation and the process of warming during maturation as separate steps.

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Germany / Overview↗

Germany / 13 Anbaugebiete

Overview of German wine: Learn 13 regions by river

Plot the Rhine and its tributaries on a map to broaden your view beyond white wines to see the wider scope of German wine.

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Germany / Appellations & winemaking↗

Herkunft / Qualitätswein

Place of origin and quality categories: Interpreting the 2026 labeling

Separate the axis where the subregions of a region become more detailed from the axis of Prädikat levels.

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Germany / Grapes↗

Riesling / Burgunder

Key varieties: the names of Riesling and Burgunder

Clarify the names of Riesling and Burgundian varieties, and confirm their representative regions.

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Germany / Regions↗

Mosel / Saar / Ruwer

Mosel: Reading the River’s Meanders and Slopes

Consider Mosel, Saar, and Ruwer together as a single production region.

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Germany / Regions↗

Rheingau

Rheingau: Where the Rhine River turns west

Understand the relationship between vineyards north of the river and south-facing slopes.

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Germany / Regions↗

Rheinhessen

Rheinhessen: Rolling hills and diverse white varieties

Do not represent a major wine-growing region solely by a single variety such as Riesling.

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Germany / Regions↗

Pfalz

Pfalz: A Region Sheltered by Forest and Bordering Alsace

Note the north-south orientation leading to Alsace, and its location east of the forest.

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Germany / Regions↗

Nahe

Nahe: How to understand the diversity of soils

A soil name alone does not determine aroma. Read soil differences together with water content and topography of the vineyard.

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Germany / Regions↗

Baden

Baden: A North-South Stretching Land of Burgunder

Do not generalize the impression of Kaiserstuhl to all of Baden.

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Germany / Regions↗

Franken / Silvaner

Franken: The Main River and Silvaner

Move beyond distinctive bottle shapes to confirm the river, geology, and grape varieties.

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Germany / Appellations & winemaking↗

Prädikat / Mostgewicht

Prädikatswein: must conditions and sweetness after completion

Do not confuse Kabinett or Spätlese with a direct scale of residual sugar.

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Germany / Appellations & winemaking↗

VDP classification

VDP: GROSSE LAGE and GROSSES GEWÄCHS

Separate vineyard parcels and the indication for the dry wines made from them.

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Germany / Appellations & winemaking↗

Winzersekt

Winzersekt: Bottle Fermentation and Sweetness Levels

Even though labeled trocken, the allowable sugar range varies between still wine and Sekt.

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Austria / Overview↗

Austria / Weinbau

Austria Overview: Dividing the East into Four Areas

Organize the regions by the Danube, the eastern plains, the southern hills, and vineyards near the capital.

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Austria / Appellations & winemaking↗

Districtus Austriae Controllatus

DAC: Read the typicity and origin of the region.

Do not confuse DAC with grape variety or a nationwide aging requirement.

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Austria / Grapes↗

Grüner Veltliner / Blaufränkisch

Key varieties: organize synonyms and crossings

In addition to mastering the representative varieties of a country, remember the local names used in Styria.

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Austria / Regions↗

Wachau / Kremstal / Kamptal

Danube environs: from Wachau eastward

Comparing locations and grape varieties of Wachau, Kremstal, and Kamptal, neighboring regions along the Danube.

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Austria / Regions↗

Weinviertel DAC

Weinviertel: A DAC focusing on grape varieties

Tie Grüner Veltliner to regional typicity.

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Austria / Regions↗

Burgenland

Burgenland: Read Separately by Red and Sweet Styles

From the lake region, move to southern hills. Do not memorize as a red-only area.

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Austria / Regions↗

Steiermark

Steiermark: The three DACs and local names

Go beyond just Sauvignon Blanc and continue to Morillon and Schilcher.

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Austria / Appellations & winemaking↗

Wachau DAC / Vinea Wachau

Wachau: DAC and the three style indications

Organize the granularity of origin and white wine styles along two axes.

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Austria / Appellations & winemaking↗

Wiener Gemischter Satz DAC

Vienna’s mixed planting and co-fermentation: Blending starting in the vineyard.

Distinguish between the blend of the finished wine and the method of growing multiple varieties in the vineyard.

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Austria / Appellations & winemaking↗

Sekt Austria

Sekt Austria: Secondary Fermentation and Time on Lees

Read Reserve and Grosse Reserve by separating them into winemaking, maturation period, and region.

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Hungary / Overview↗

Hungary / Magyarország

Overview of Hungary: From six large regions to individual appellations

Widen your perspective from Tokaj to learn about lakeside whites, northern blends, and southern reds.

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Hungary / Appellations & winemaking↗

OEM / OFJ / FN

Appellation labeling: OEM, OFJ, and wine names

Separate columns for place of origin framework, regional categories, and sweetness/dryness.

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Hungary / Grapes↗

Furmint / Kékfrankos

Key varieties: from Furmint to Kékfrankos

Connect local names and synonyms to learn about usage of the variety beyond just sweet wines.

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Hungary / Regions↗

Tokaj

Tokaj: Rivers and Hills, Dry and Sweet

Study the conditions for botrytis and the option to produce dry wines from the same region together.

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Hungary / Regions↗

Eger / Egri Csillag

Eger: Learning About Red and White Blends

Red Bikavér and white Csillag. Analyze these two blends by their grape composition and their regional indication.

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Hungary / Regions↗

Villány / Villányi Franc

Villány: Cabernet Franc and Geographical Indication

Read the southern reds from the rules of grape variety and origin.

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Hungary / Regions↗

Szekszárd

Szekszárd: Kadarka and Bikavér

Note the location of hills and the Danube River, and compare the red wine sharing the same name as Eger.

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Hungary / Regions↗

Balaton / Somló

Balaton and Somló: From lakeshore to independent hills

Place the main white varieties on the north shore, south shore, and distant hills of the lake.

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Hungary / Regions↗

Upper Pannon / Sopron / Etyek-Buda

Upper Pannonia: Sopron reds and Etyek sparkling

Connect with regions on the Austrian side to study reds and traditional method sparkling wines.

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Hungary / Appellations & winemaking↗

Tokaji Aszú / Eszencia

Aszú and Eszencia: tracing the steps for extracting sugar

Even starting with the same berries, extraction and fermentation can follow different paths.

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Hungary / Producers↗

Szamorodni / Disznókő

Szamorodniy: Comparing dry and sweet styles with real examples

Compare dry and sweet Szamorodni by their differences in raw materials, fermentation, and aging.

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Hungary / Appellations & winemaking↗

Egri Bikavér / Szekszárdi Bikavér

Bikavér: Distinguish between the blend name and the place of origin

Move from common wine names to local-specific conditions and producer choices.

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Greece / Overview↗

Greece / Elláda

Overview of Greece: Read separately about mountains, sea, and islands

Add altitude, wind, and distance from the sea to the warmth of the Mediterranean climate.

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Greece / Appellations & winemaking↗

PDO / PGI / Traditional Designation

PDO/PGI and traditional indications

Link old designations with the EU framework, and read origin and production method separately.

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Greece / Grapes↗

Assyrtiko / Xinomavro

Key varieties: from four entry points to regional varieties

Pair grape variety and place of origin, but do not determine the taste based solely on that combination.

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Greece / Regions↗

Naoussa / Xinomavro

Naoussa: Xinomavro—Extraction and Maturation

After matching grape varieties, examine differences in vineyard and winemaking.

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Greece / Regions↗

Nemea / Agiorgitiko

Nemea: Altitude differences and Agiorgitiko

Even with the same Agiorgitiko, vineyard altitude and winemaking differ. Compare the reds of Nemea and seek differences that cannot be understood by richness alone.

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Greece / Regions↗

Mantinia / Moschofilero

Mantinia: Plateau’s Moschofilero

Distinguish between aromatic impressions and sweetness, and between grape skin color and wine color.

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Greece / Regions↗

Santorini / Kouloura

Santorini: Training system for wind and origin

Consider the reason for training vines in basket shapes in terms of the island’s wind and grape growing conditions.

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Greece / Regions↗

Crete / Vidiano

Crete: Indigenous varieties and multiple appellations

Do not memorize an island as a single place of origin or a single grape.

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Greece / Regions↗

Samos / Muscat

Samos: Muscat and sweet wine options

Even with the same island and variety, separately investigate drying and fortification.

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Greece / Producers↗

Vinsanto / SantoWines

Vin Santo: From Drying after Harvest to Aging

Understand Santorini sweet wines by the stage when water is removed from the grapes.

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Greece / Appellations & winemaking↗

Retsina / Pine resin

Retsina: when is the resin added

Break down the origins of aromas into variety, barrel, and fermentation practices.

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Switzerland / Overview↗

Switzerland / Six regions

Switzerland Overview: Six regions, mountains, and lakes

Focus more on which side of the mountains the country is on than its small size.

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Switzerland / Appellations & winemaking↗

AOC / Vin de pays / Vin de table

Swiss Appellations & winemaking: Federal classifications and canton regulations

Using the three main categories as a foundation, proceed to specific appellation regulations.

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Switzerland / Grapes↗

Chasselas / Pinot Noir / Gamay / Merlot

Main varieties and their names in multiple languages

Using four main grape varieties as a core, local names are added for each region.

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Switzerland / Regions↗

Valais / Wallis

Valais: Upper Rhône and a diversity of varieties

View the dry valley and the slopes of the Alps together.

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Switzerland / Regions↗

Vaud / Chasselas

Vaud: Chasselas on the lakeshore and the origin of the region name

Place La Côte, Lavaux, and Chablais around Lake Geneva.

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Switzerland / Regions↗

Geneva / Genève

Geneva: Rivers and lakes, diversification of grape varieties

Read vineyards located near cities as three geographical units.

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Switzerland / Regions↗

German-speaking Switzerland

German-speaking region: Pinot Noir as the axis from east to west

Not one state, but a group of vineyards stretching from the north to the east.

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Switzerland / Regions↗

Ticino / Tessin

Ticino: Merlot on the southern side of the Alps

To the south of the mountains, both sunlight and rainfall are observed.

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Switzerland / Regions↗

Three Lakes / Trois-Lacs

Three Lakes area: Rosé and unfiltered Chasselas

Distinguish among the three lakes: Neuchâtel, Biel, and Morat.

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Switzerland / Regions↗

Lavaux / Vineyard Terraces

Reading Lavaux in depth: What do the terraces support?

Stone walls supporting terraces and vineyard slopes. From the landscape of Lavaux, we can observe the work required to continue viticulture.

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Switzerland / Grapes↗

Fendant / Heida / Johannisberg

Valais Synonyms: Returning Labels to Varieties

Organize the synonyms for varieties used in Valais. Even if they resemble place names or variety names from other countries, they may not mean the same thing.

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Switzerland / Producers↗

Gialdi / Brivio / Bianco Rovere 2023

Producer Case Study: Bianco Rovere's White Merlot

Trace separately the steps for suppressing color and for using barrels.

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United States / Overview↗

United States / Wine regions

Overview of the US: From West Coast to East

Place wine regions under the state name and compare the influences of the sea, mountains, and lakes.

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United States / Appellations & winemaking↗

American Viticultural Area

The basics of AVA and origin labelling

AVA refers to the name of a grape growing area. Distinguish it from grape varieties and classifications.

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United States / Grapes↗

Cabernet Sauvignon / Zinfandel / Riesling

Key varieties: from Cabernet to Riesling

Use famous grape and region combinations as a starting point for comparison.

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United States / Regions↗

Napa Valley

Napa Valley: From valley floor to mountain vineyards

Reread Cabernet-growing regions in relation to fog and elevation.

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United States / Regions↗

Sonoma County

Sonoma: Pinot Noir from the fog, reds from inland

Within a broad county, distinguish Russian River from Dry Creek.

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United States / Regions↗

Central Coast / Santa Barbara

Central Coast: Cool Air Through East–West Valleys

In east-west open valleys, cold air enters from the sea. Besides latitude, the orientation of the valleys is a point to compare coastal regions.

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United States / Regions↗

Lodi / Sierra Foothills

Lodi and the interior: Remember the Delta winds

Add the position of rivers and foothills to the concept of 'inland.'

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United States / Regions↗

Oregon / Willamette Valley

Oregon: From Willamette to the south and border region

Using Pinot Noir as a basis, expand to various regions within the state.

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United States / Regions↗

Washington / Columbia Valley

Washington: Rain shadow and the Columbia Valley

Do not directly apply Seattle’s weather to major vineyard areas.

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United States / Regions↗

New York / Finger Lakes / Long Island

New York: Riesling from the lakes and Merlot from the sea

Compare the inland lakes and Atlantic coastal islands within the same state.

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United States / Regions↗

Virginia

Virginia: Cabernet Franc and Aromatic Whites

Learn about Cabernet Franc and aromatic whites starting from the conditions of vineyards located south of New York.

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United States / Appellations & winemaking↗

Variety / Origin / Vintage / Estate bottled

Label exercise: What do the 75%, 85%, and 95% figures represent?

Write the headings 'Variety', 'Place', and 'Year' before the number.

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United States / Regions↗

Napa Valley / Fog and elevation

A deeper look at fog: Napa’s north and south and mountain vineyards

Consider both the entry of cold air and the height of the fog in two different cross-sections.

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United States / Producers↗

Ridge / Lytton Springs 2023

Producer Case Study: Ridge Lytton Springs Blending and Barrels

Use the ratios provided by the producer to thoroughly understand the grape sources and maturation.

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Australia / Overview↗

Australia / Climate and regions

Australia Overview: The southern seas and highlands

Do not treat the continent as one hot region overall.

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Australia / Appellations & winemaking↗

Geographical Indication / Label Integrity Program

GI & the 85% Rule: Understanding Origin, Grape, and Vintage

Organize geographical scope separately from winemaking methods.

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Australia / Grapes↗

Shiraz / Cabernet / Riesling / Semillon

Key varieties: beyond Shiraz

Learn about regional differences and separate winemaking approaches for the same grape variety.

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Australia / Regions↗

Barossa Valley / Eden Valley

Barossa: Valley reds and the heights of Eden

Do not consider Barossa and Barossa Valley as the same area.

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Australia / Regions↗

Clare Valley / Adelaide Hills

Clare and Adelaide Hills: comparing whites

Read about altitude and nighttime cooling along with variety differences.

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Australia / Regions↗

McLaren Vale

McLaren Vale: Sea and Grenache

Even within warm regions, sea and hills change conditions.

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Australia / Regions↗

Coonawarra / Terra rossa

Coonawarra: Terra Rossa and Cabernet

Divide red soils, limestone, and maritime influence into three distinct factors.

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Australia / Regions↗

Margaret River / Great Southern

Western Australia: Maritime Cabernet and Whites

Read about the regions producing Cabernet and white wines on the southwestern edge of the continent, influenced by the sea.

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Australia / Regions↗

Hunter Valley / Semillon

Hunter: Warm region Semillon

Do not directly link vineyard warmth to the weight of the wine.

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Australia / Regions↗

Orange / Canberra District

Orange and Canberra: Understanding the regions by altitude

Even in inland areas, vineyards at higher elevations have different conditions.

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Australia / Regions↗

Yarra Valley / Mornington Peninsula

Victoria: Yarra and Mornington Peninsula

Compare cool-climate Pinot and Chardonnay in different terrains.

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Australia / Regions↗

Tasmania

Tasmania: Pinot and sparkling wines from a cool island

From vineyard conditions that preserve acidity, the style splits into sparkling and still wines.

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Australia / Regions↗

Riverland / Murray Darling / Riverina

Large inland regions: Diversity of rivers and wine uses

Do not omit regions that support the country's production from the map.

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Australia / Producers↗

Brokenwood / ILR Reserve Semillon

Producer Case Study: Barrel-less Aged Sémillon

Do not immediately assume toasty notes indicate oak aromas.

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Australia / Appellations & winemaking↗

Rutherglen Muscat / Topaque

Rutherglen: Fortification, Oak Aging, Blending

Follow the sequence: adding grape spirit to leave sugar remaining, then blending matured base wines aged in casks.

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Australia / Appellations & winemaking↗

State / Zone / Region / Subregion

GI Exercise: What Does a Broad Region Name Indicate?

Separate the sources from which raw material was collected and the evaluation of the wine.

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New Zealand / Overview↗

Two islands, many climates

Overview of New Zealand

As you go further south, overlay the general trend of cooling with the effects of mountain rain shadow and the sea.

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New Zealand / Appellations & winemaking↗

Origin and label claims

GI and Labeling 85%

Check display conditions for region, variety, and vintage individually.

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New Zealand / Grapes↗

Grapes and winemaking

Connect major varieties to regions.

In addition to Sauvignon Blanc, match major red and white varieties with their representative regions.

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New Zealand / Regions↗

Northland and Auckland

Northern Region: Northland and Auckland

The North serves as an introduction to the warm maritime environment and the old history of the wine industry.

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New Zealand / Regions↗

Gisborne

Gisborne: The diversity of Chardonnay and white wines

Look not only at the plains but also the slopes of the warm wine region on the eastern tip of the North Island.

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New Zealand / Regions↗

Hawke’s Bay

Hawke’s Bay: gravel plains and reds

Red blends are centered on Syrah, with differences between coastal and inland areas added.

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New Zealand / Regions↗

Wairarapa

Wairarapa and Martinborough

Wairarapa is a broad region; Martinborough is one locality within it.

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New Zealand / Regions↗

Marlborough

Marlborough: Reading the Three Valleys

Divide the major Sauvignon Blanc wine regions by valley terrain and soils.

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New Zealand / Regions↗

Nelson

Nelson: Comparing hills and plains

At the northern tip of the South Island, let's compare the Moutere Hills and Waimea Plains.

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New Zealand / Regions↗

North Canterbury

North Canterbury and Waipara

Using Riesling as the entry point, study the influence of wind, hills, gravel, and limestone.

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New Zealand / Regions↗

Waitaki Valley

Waitaki Valley: cool vineyards along the river

Compare conditions of alluvial soils and slopes containing limestone within the same valley.

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New Zealand / Regions↗

Central Otago

Central Otago: Inland Pinot

Add basin, slope, and elevation differences to the positioning as a southern region.

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New Zealand / Producers↗

Te Koko 2023

Cloudy Bay: Where does Te Koko’s texture come from?

Add the aspects of fermentation vessels and lees to the aromas of Sauvignon Blanc.

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New Zealand / Appellations & winemaking↗

Traditional method and a collective mark

Méthode Marlborough: Distinguishing GI from Association Standards

The Marlborough origin indication and the special sparkling mark convey different information.

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Chile / Overview↗

Latitude and the Pacific

Overview of Chile: North-South and East-West

When listing region names from south to north, you traverse the same valley from the sea toward the Andes.

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Chile / Appellations & winemaking↗

Chile’s origin system

DO・75%・85% Clarification

Even if the same information appears on the label, read separately which indication requires which percentage.

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Chile / Grapes↗

Chile’s grape families

Cabernet, Carmenere and Classical Varieties

Master both the representative varieties of a country and the varieties preserved by local growers in each region.

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Chile / Regions↗

Atacama and Coquimbo

North: Atacama and Coquimbo

Even in the dry north, there are vineyards cooled by the sea and elevation.

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Chile / Regions↗

Aconcagua

Aconcagua: From Inland to the Coast

Looking from east to west down a single valley reveals the diversity of Chilean wine regions.

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Chile / Regions↗

Casablanca and San Antonio

We will examine the cooling effect of the sea on Pinot and Syrah as well as white varieties.

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Chile / Regions↗

Maipo

Maipo: Cabernet and foothill vineyards

Learn about the reds around Santiago from the perspective of vineyard and harvest assessment.

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Chile / Regions↗

Rapel

Rapel: Cachapoal and Colchagua

Carmenère is a grape best understood by looking at differences between valleys and vineyards in its regions.

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Chile / Regions↗

Curicó and Maule

Curicó and Maule: Volume and diversity in the central-southern regions

Even regions responsible for large-scale production retain old-vine vineyards. Compare Curicó and Maule wines by grape variety and the history of their vineyards.

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Chile / Regions↗

Itata

Itata: Old-vine País and Cinsault

By exploring family vineyards and indigenous varieties, you'll discover a different history of Chile.

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Chile / Regions↗

Southern Chile

From Biobío to Austral

Moving southward brings changes in temperature supporting ripening and how to handle rainfall.

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Chile / Appellations & winemaking↗

Reading Chilean quality terms

How many years of aging does Reserva indicate?

Even if the term is the same as in Spain, in Chile it’s used under different conditions.

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Chile / Appellations & winemaking↗

Old-vine Carignan

VIGNO: Standards based on old vines

This is an initiative to share not only the regional name but also vineyard age and farming practices.

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Chile / Producers↗

País and sparkling winemaking

Estelado: País undergoes secondary fermention in bottle

Here is an example of producing sparkling wine from País. We trace the history of this variety and the process of secondary fermentation in the bottle.

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Argentina / Overview↗

Altitude, latitude and water

Overview of Argentina

On the dry eastern side of the Andes, managing light and water use is crucial.

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Argentina / Appellations & winemaking↗

Origin and regulated terms

The role of IP, IG, and DOC on labels

Read separately terms showing origin in Appellations and those indicating maturation.

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Argentina / Grapes↗

Malbec, Bonarda and white grapes

Varietal map beyond Malbec

Alongside Malbec, study other black varieties and white varieties such as Torrontés by region.

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Argentina / Regions↗

Mendoza’s historic heart

Mendoza: Luján de Cuyo and Maipú

Mendoza is a large regional designation. First, separate long-established central areas.

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Argentina / Regions↗

Uco Valley

Uco Valley: From elevation to plots

Within the common feature of high elevation, there are differences in soils created by rivers.

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Argentina / Regions↗

Eastern and southern Mendoza

Eastern Mendoza and San Rafael

Outside famous high-altitude subregions, there are also large vineyard areas supporting the local industry.

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Argentina / Regions↗

San Juan

San Juan: From Syrah to Highlands

Add Pedernal and Calingasta to your understanding of warm regions.

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Argentina / Regions↗

Salta and the Calchaquí Valleys

Northwest: Salta and the Calchaquí Valley

Under intense light and cool nights, both reds and aromatic whites are cultivated.

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Argentina / Regions↗

La Rioja Argentina

La Rioja: Torrontés of Famatina

Distinguish from Spain’s Rioja, and memorize using white varieties and mountain valleys as guideposts.

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Argentina / Regions↗

Patagonia

Patagonia: Rivers, Winds, Latitude

We add the perspective of dry, riverside agriculture to the southern coolness.

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Argentina / Producers↗

Concreto 2019

Zuccardi: Malbec Made in Concrete

This is an example of fermenting and aging Malbec in concrete. Distinguish between extraction from skins and aromas imparted by barrels.

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Argentina / Producers↗

White Stones Chardonnay 2020

Catena: High-altitude Chardonnay and used barrels

Separate the effect of altitude from the choices of fermentation and maturation.

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Argentina / Appellations & winemaking↗

Ageing terms in Argentina

Re-examining Reserva and Gran Reserva

Distinguish between current official guidance and older materials, and check the minimum aging periods for each color.

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South Africa / Overview↗

Oceans, mountains and water

Overview of South Africa

Starting from the country's southwest, examine the distance to the sea and the orientation of the mountains together.

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South Africa / Appellations & winemaking↗

Wine of Origin

WO: Reading Origin and Labels

Region, variety, and vintage are each guaranteed by different standards.

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South Africa / Grapes↗

South African grape varieties

Chenin, Pinotage, and beyond

Compare the use of Chenin Blanc and Pinotage with their roles among other white and black grapes and in blends.

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South Africa / Regions↗

Stellenbosch

Stellenbosch: Cabernet from mountains and sea

Explain Cabernet ripening, not just by sunlight but also by sea breeze and slopes.

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South Africa / Regions↗

Paarl, Franschhoek and Wellington

Paarl and Franschhoek: Inland valleys

Even in adjacent valleys, the appellation or wine style does not always coincide.

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South Africa / Regions↗

Constantia and Durbanville

Constantia: History of sweet wines and cool-climate whites

You will learn not only about historic sweet wines but also dry whites exposed to sea breezes.

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South Africa / Regions↗

Swartland and Darling

Swartland: old vines and soil differences

Expand your learning from old-vine Chenin to Syrah and blends.

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South Africa / Regions↗

Breedekloof, Worcester and Robertson

Breede River basin: white, sparkling, and inland water

Compare the white and sparkling wines of the Breede River basin, in terms of vineyard locations and water use.

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South Africa / Regions↗

Elgin, Walker Bay and Cape Agulhas

South Coast: Elgin and Walker Bay

Read altitude and sea breezes as separate factors contributing to coolness.

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South Africa / Regions↗

Olifants River, Klein Karoo and Northern Cape

Inland and northern areas: expand wine regions along the rivers

Step away from the Cape Town area and consider strategies for water and heat management.

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South Africa / Appellations & winemaking↗

Old Vine Project

What does old vine certification guarantee?

Consider vine age records separately from the evaluation of wine character.

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South Africa / Appellations & winemaking↗

Cap Classique

Cape Classic: the process of bubbles and lees

Follow the steps of second fermentation in the bottle and maturation, stage by stage.

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South Africa / Producers↗

Klein Constantia 2022

Vin de Constance: Selection Harvest and Sweet Wines

Read the method of a single vintage in the order of number of harvests, fermentation, and barrels.

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Canada / Overview↗

Lakes, oceans and continental interiors

Canada / Overview

Think separately about cold winters and the ripening summer for grapes.

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Canada / Appellations & winemaking↗

Canadian origin systems

Read VQA and IGP by region.

Don’t assume VQA is a nationwide unified set of regulations; check which province and region the rules cover.

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Canada / Grapes↗

Vinifera and hybrid varieties

Read varieties in terms of ripening and frost resistance.

Clarify the role of hybrid varieties in addition to Riesling and Pinot.

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Canada / Regions↗

Niagara Peninsula

Niagara Peninsula: Between the lake and the escarpment.

Check the positions of Lake Ontario and the escarpment, and compare the topography and growing conditions across subregions.

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Canada / Regions↗

Lake Erie North Shore and Prince Edward County

Ontario's two lakeshore regions

We compare two other major appellations aside from Niagara.

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Canada / Regions↗

Okanagan Valley

Okanagan: Reading a Long North-South Valley

The main Western growing regions consider summer heat, dryness, and lakes all at once.

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Canada / Regions↗

Beyond the Okanagan

BC’s Inland and Pacific Coast

First, organize the nine GIs by dividing them into inland and coastal areas.

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Canada / Regions↗

Québec

Quebec: Cold hardiness and regional certification

Learn about the response to cold and IGPs that trace wine from vineyard to bottle.

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Canada / Regions↗

Nova Scotia

Nova Scotia: Coastal Whites and Sparkling

Learn about the eastern maritime regions through both Tidal Bay and sparkling wines.

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Canada / Appellations & winemaking↗

Icewine and concentration

Icewine: From Freezing to Pressing

Grapes that have frozen naturally on the vine are pressed while still frozen, leaving part of the water as ice to create a concentrated juice. This process is covered here.

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Canada / Appellations & winemaking↗

Nova Scotia’s white wine appellation

Tidal Bay: The regional shared style of white wine

Instead of fixing on a single grape variety, regional styles are shaped by grapes and classification panels.

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Romania / Overview↗

The Carpathians and eight wine regions

Romania Overview

Refer to the map to check the regions inside and outside the Carpathian Mountains, along the Danube, and by the Black Sea.

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Romania / Appellations & winemaking↗

Origin, certification and harvest terms

Clarify DOC, IG, and harvest categories

Place of origin, grape ripeness, and final sweetness/dryness are divided into three separate categories.

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Romania / Grapes↗

Fetească and regional grapes

Three types of Fetească and local varieties.

Do not combine similarly named varieties; organize white and black (red) varieties separately.

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Romania / Regions↗

Transylvania and Târnave

Transylvania: Whites and sparkling wines from the hills

From the hills inside the mountains, continue to white varieties and traditional-method sparkling.

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Romania / Regions↗

Moldova within Romania

The Moldavia region: Cotnari and Vrancea

Distinguish place names in Romania from those in neighboring Moldova.

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Romania / Regions↗

Dealu Mare

Dealu Mare: reading red wines from the foothills

Compare Fetească Neagră with international varieties and whites.

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Romania / Regions↗

Oltenia and Drăgășani

Oltenia: Indigenous Varieties of Drăgășani

Learn about indigenous black and white varieties, based on slope orientation and winemaking.

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Romania / Regions↗

Banat, Crișana and Maramureș

West: Banat and Crișana/Maramureș

We’ll use Recaș and Miniș as starting points to outline the western regions.

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Romania / Regions↗

Dobrogea and the Danube

Dobrogea and Danube Terraces

Between the Black Sea and the Danube, consider heat and water.

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Romania / Appellations & winemaking↗

CMD, CT and CIB

Compare DOC vintage labeling in the specification document

Even if the abbreviation is the same, the specific conditions vary by region or variety.

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Romania / Producers↗

Extra Dry NV

Jidvei: Traditional method sparkling using indigenous varieties

Using Fetească Regală and international varieties, trace the process of creating bubbles through traditional bottle fermentation.

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Bulgaria / Overview↗

Mountains, the Black Sea and the Struma

Overview of Bulgaria

Don't end with just north and south; add the eastern sea and the southwestern valley.

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Bulgaria / Appellations & winemaking↗

Protected origin names

Distinguish between geographic divisions and PGI/PDO.

Read explanations of provincial names separately from information on protected label indications.

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Bulgaria / Grapes↗

Bulgarian local grapes

Mavrud, Melnick, local white varieties

Include not only black grapes but also aromatic whites in the grape variety map.

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Bulgaria / Regions↗

Danubian Plain

Danube Plain: northern reds and whites

Learn from light reds to international varieties between river and mountains.

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Bulgaria / Regions↗

Black Sea region

Black Sea side: Dimiat and white wine regions

Beginning with coastal whites, move on to the differences between coastal and inland areas.

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Bulgaria / Regions↗

Sub-Balkan and Rose Valley

Rose Valley: Aromatic mountain whites

Understand from the relationship between mountains and varieties, not just from the impression of the name.

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Bulgaria / Regions↗

Thracian Lowlands

Thracian Lowlands: Local reds and blends

From Mavrud as a starting point, move on to producers using international varieties.

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Bulgaria / Regions↗

Struma Valley and Melnik

Struma River Basin: The diversity of Melnik

In warm southwestern regions, learn differences among Melnik-type varieties and both red and white winemaking.

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Bulgaria / Producers↗

Domaine Bessa Valley

Enira Reserva 2019: reading the blend and barrel use

Using the 2019 documentation, check the actual varietal ratios and barrel usage. Read beyond the product name to understand winemaking differences.

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Bulgaria / Producers↗

Orange Wine — 2016 introduction

Villa Melnik: Fermenting Whites on Their Skins

Follow skin contact and subsequent lees aging processes for white grapes separately.

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Moldova / Overview↗

Wooded hills and southern wine regions

Moldova Overview

Within a small country, analyze differences in hills, rivers, and north-south orientation.

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Moldova / Appellations & winemaking↗

Wine PGIs and wine spirits

The three PGIs of wine and Divin

Distinguish between the three PGI wine regions and the name Divin for spirits.

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Moldova / Grapes↗

Local, international and Caucasian grapes

Rara Neagră and Viorica

Indigenous varieties are layered with international and Caucasus-derived varieties.

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Moldova / Regions↗

Codru

Codru: Forested Hills and Whites & Sparkling

Read separately about the vineyards growing white wine grapes and the underground cellars for their maturation.

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Moldova / Regions↗

Ștefan Vodă

Ștefan Vodă: River terraces and reds

Using Purcari as an entry point, learn about the broader PGI area and its grape varieties.

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Moldova / Regions↗

Valul lui Traian

Valea lui Traian: Southwestern Terrain

Read the southern broad regions by dividing into plains, hills, and terraces.

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Moldova / Producers↗

Purcari red blend

Negru de Purcari: The role of the three varieties

Do not infer the grape variety from the product name; read the blend and maturation.

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Moldova / Producers↗

Cuvée Prestige

Cricova: Traditional method and underground aging

Study the Cuvée Prestige's bottle fermentation and ageing in conjunction with the storage environment of underground cellars.

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Georgia / Overview↗

Georgia overview

Overview of Georgia

Organize the east-west geography using three axes: grape varieties, appellations, and winemaking.

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Georgia / Appellations & winemaking↗

Protected designations of origin

Appellation of origin and labels

Do not just memorize famous place names by flavor image; compare them with permitted varieties and styles.

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Georgia / Grapes↗

Rkatsiteli Saperavi Chinuri Tsolikouri

Memorize indigenous varieties in east and west

Starting with Rkatsiteli and Saperavi, expand your focus to western white varieties.

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Georgia / Regions↗

Kakheti

The central region of the east, formed by the Alazani and Iori Rivers.

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Georgia / Regions↗

Kartli

Use Chinuri and sparkling wines as a clue to study central regions.

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Georgia / Regions↗

Imereti

Learn about the blending and skin management of white varieties in western regions.

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Georgia / Regions↗

Racha Lechkhumi

Racha-Lechkhumi

Understand the naturally semi-sweet character from the narrow valley and indigenous varieties.

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Georgia / Regions↗

Black Sea coast and Meskheti

Compare the humid vineyards of the Black Sea coast and the highlands of southern Meskheti. The growing environments here differ from those in eastern Kakheti.

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Georgia / Appellations & winemaking↗

Qvevri and skin contact

Qvevri and handling of grape skins

Even with the same amphora, the wine’s structure changes depending on how much grape skin is included.

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Georgia / Appellations & winemaking↗

Tsinandali specification

Read the technical sheets for Tsinandali

Check the blends for representative whites as well as the conditions for reds and aging listed in current materials.

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Georgia / Appellations & winemaking↗

Kindzmarauli natural semi sweet

Kindzmarauli sweetness

Link the process of retaining sugar in grapes with the residual sugar in finished wine.

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Slovenia / Overview↗

Slovenia overview

Overview of Slovenia

Memorize the three major regions based on the positions of the river and the sea.

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Slovenia / Appellations & winemaking↗

ZGP PGO PTP

Reading ZGP, PGO, and PTP

Match the types of geographical indications with the traditional terminology used on labels.

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Slovenia / Grapes↗

Rebula Šipon Laški rizling

Grape varieties that cross borders

Organize grape varieties that have different names across borders, and confirm which wine regions use the same grape.

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Slovenia / Regions↗

Podravje

Learn about inland regions through their hillside white wines and sparkling wines.

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Slovenia / Regions↗

Posavje

Not only analyze Dolenjska’s Cviček, but also compare differences among three districts.

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Slovenia / Regions↗

Brda Primorska

Brda and Primorska

Compare the four areas of Primorska, including Brda, from their positions relative to sea and mountains.

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Slovenia / Regions↗

Vipavska dolina

Vipava Valley

Relate Želen, Pinela, Rebula, and the windy valley topography.

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Slovenia / Appellations & winemaking↗

Cviček

Zvijezdek Blend

Consider the reason for blending black and white grape varieties from the perspective of the structure of light-bodied reds.

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Slovenia / Producers↗

Guerila Rebula Selection 2021

Reading Guerila’s Rebula through winemaking processes

From the 2021 technical sheet, separately follow the one week of skin contact and the one year of aging.

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Croatia / Overview↗

Croatia overview

Croatia Overview

Arrange the two inland and two coastal regions around sea and river influences.

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Croatia / Appellations & winemaking↗

ZOI KZP quality terms

Origin indication and traditional terms

Read the place of origin name, quality indications, and aging statements as separate items.

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Croatia / Grapes↗

Graševina Malvazija istarska Plavac mali

The three main varieties and their cross-border names

Organize the synonyms—don't assume similar names indicate the same grape variety.

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Croatia / Regions↗

Slavonia Croatian Danube

Slavonia and the Danube

From Graševina, read the eastern hills and river-valley producing regions.

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Croatia / Regions↗

Croatian Uplands Bregovita Hrvatska

Croatian Uplands

Study the whites and sparkling wines from the hills, and the revival of local varieties.

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Croatia / Regions↗

Istria Kvarner

Istria and Kvarner

Compare Marvasia of the peninsula to the whites of the islands.

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Croatia / Regions↗

Dalmatia

Read how the main red and white varieties correspond to grapes grown on the peninsula and island slopes.

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Croatia / Appellations & winemaking↗

Dingač Klasiko Riserva

The slopes and maturation indications of Dingač

From the published product specifications, distinguish between vineyard conditions and the aging periods in barrel and bottle.

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Croatia / Producers↗

Grgić Vina Plavac Mali 2016

Grgich’s Plavac Mali

On the producer's 2016 product page, examine the fermentation and two-stage maturation.

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Luxembourg / Overview↗

Luxembourg overview

Luxembourg: Overview

Even if two regions share the same river name, read the appellation systems of Germany’s Mosel region and other areas separately.

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Luxembourg / Appellations & winemaking↗

Moselle Luxembourgeoise Côtes Coteaux Lieu dit

AOP and granularity of regions

Organize Côtes, Coteaux, and Lieu-dit based on the differences in the range of origin they represent.

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Luxembourg / Grapes↗

Auxerrois Elbling Rivaner Riesling

Compare white varieties by aroma and acidity

Compare Riesling with other white varieties in terms of aroma and acidity.

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Luxembourg / Regions↗

Grevenmacher

Around Grevenmacher

Read the northern sections along the Moselle River in terms of limestone and slopes.

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Luxembourg / Regions↗

Remich Schengen

From Remich to Schengen

Using the southern mudstone and marl as a clue, compare whites and Crémant.

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Luxembourg / Appellations & winemaking↗

Crémant de Luxembourg

Break down the steps of Crémant

Understand base wine, bottle fermentation, and maturation on lees as separate stages.

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Luxembourg / Appellations & winemaking↗

Vendanges tardives Vin de paille Vin de glace

Compare late harvest, dried, and frozen methods

There are three routes to achieving sugar concentration.

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Luxembourg / Producers↗

Domaines Vinsmoselle Poll Fabaire Brut

Paul Faber Brut

Read the four-variety blend and minimum 12 months of lees aging as an example.

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United Kingdom / Overview↗

United Kingdom England Wales overview

Overview of UK wine

Start with sparkling wines from the southeast, then expand to still wines of the east and Wales.

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United Kingdom / Appellations & winemaking↗

English Welsh PDO PGI

PDO/PGI and origin of raw materials

Learn the labeling standards for still wines, and separately study the specifications for sparkling wines.

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United Kingdom / Grapes↗

Chardonnay Pinot Noir Meunier Bacchus

The three grape varieties for sparkling and Bacchus

In addition to the three varieties used for sparkling wines, clarify the uses of Bacchus and disease-resistant varieties.

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United Kingdom / Regions↗

Kent Sussex Hampshire Surrey

Key regions of the southeast

Look beyond chalky hills to see the diversity of soils and wines.

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United Kingdom / Regions↗

Essex East Anglia

Essex and the East

Consider still white and red wines in terms of eastern ripening conditions.

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United Kingdom / Regions↗

West Country Wessex

Western region: Wessex

Read both sparkling and still wines in terms of the influence of the sea and the choice of location.

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United Kingdom / Regions↗

Wales Cymru

Wales

Which varieties to grow in humid land? Check vineyard conditions and the material requirements specified by appellation rules.

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United Kingdom / Regions↗

Thames Chilterns Midlands North

Thames basin and the Midlands/North

In addition to the South, pay attention to regional divisions and field conditions.

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United Kingdom / Appellations & winemaking↗

Sussex PDO maturation

Reading the 15 months of Sussex

From specifications, separate total period in bottle from time on lees.

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United Kingdom / Producers↗

Nyetimber Classic Cuvee Multi Vintage

Nyetimber: multi-vintage blend.

Understand blending of varieties and blending of vintages as separate processes.

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Uruguay / Overview↗

Uruguay overview

Overview of Uruguay

Contrast the influence of the sea and major rivers with the dry Andean regions.

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Uruguay / Appellations & winemaking↗

Vino de Calidad Preferente

VCP and label proportions

Read 85% for variety and 85% for vintage separately for their respective subjects.

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Uruguay / Grapes↗

Tannat Albariño and blends

Tannat and Albariño

Relate the grape variety's characteristics to extraction and vessel selection.

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Uruguay / Regions↗

Canelones Montevideo San José

Canelones and the South

In the south, affected by the Río de la Plata, read how the main vineyards are centered on Canelones.

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Uruguay / Regions↗

Maldonado Rocha

Maldonado and Rocha

Connect the Atlantic winds and hills to Tannat and white varieties.

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Uruguay / Regions↗

Colonia Salto Paysandú

Colonia and the Uruguay River region

Read temperature and soil differences moving northwest along riversides from the southwest.

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Uruguay / Regions↗

Rivera Tacuarembó Durazno

Ribera and Central Region

Consider the differences between the hills of red sandy soils and the central area's ripening conditions.

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Uruguay / Producers↗

Garzón Tannat Reserva 2023

Garzón: Tannat and large barrels

Separate the roles of concrete fermentation and large untoasted cask ageing.

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Uruguay / Producers↗

Garzón Albariño Reserva 2023

Albariño and maturation on lees

Distinguish between adding barrel aroma and enhancing texture by lees contact.

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Japan / Overview↗

Japan overview

Rethinking Japanese wine through topography and viticulture

If you remember Japan as a single rainy region, you lose sight of the differences between Hokkaidō and Kyūshū, or between inland basins and coastal areas. I want to consider latitude, altitude, topography, and cultivation techniques adapted to rain and cold.

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Japan / Appellations & winemaking↗

Japanese wine labelling

Distinguish between Japanese wine, geographical indication, and GI labeling

The order for reading labels is: "Is this Japanese wine?", "What is the place name?", "Is it GI?" Even if you see the same name, the required percentage of ingredients and production conditions may differ.

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Japan / Grapes↗

Koshu and Muscat Bailey A

Broaden the range of varieties from Koshu and Bailey A

After reviewing Japan’s flagship grape varieties, I want to be able to trace which vineyard the grape came from and what processes it went through. Koshu is not fixed as just one style of white, nor is Muscat Bailey A limited to one light red style.

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Japan / Regions↗

Yamanashi

Yamanashi: Differentiating Koshu from the Kofu Basin

In the Kōfu Basin and surrounding areas, the landscape encircled by mountains, temperature differences between day and night, and drainage on slopes are clues for understanding viticultural conditions. Imagine the vineyards of Katsunuma while tracing the growing conditions for Kōshū and the use of lees and barrels.

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Japan / Regions↗

Nagano

Nagano: An Overview of the Five Wine Valleys

The Shinshu Wine Valley can be organized into five regions: Kikyogahara, Chikumagawa, Japan Alps, Tenryugawa, and the western foot of Yatsugatake. Check the locations of these five and the production conditions set by GI Nagano for each.

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Japan / Regions↗

Hokkaido

Hokkaido: Coolness and adaptation for winter survival

First, place Shiribeshi (including Yoichi), Sorachi (including Iwamizawa), Kamikawa (which has Furano), and Tokachi (home to Ikeda Town) in Hokkaido. Compare cultivation in Yoichi and variety selection in Ikeda, considering both ripening conditions and preparations for winter.

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Japan / Regions↗

Yamagata

Yamagata: Region for fruit production and wine grape growing

In Yamagata, there are vineyards in inland basins and at the foot of mountains. Do not characterize the whole prefecture by the Japan Sea coastal climate—check grape selections and GI conditions for each growing area.

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Japan / Regions↗

Niigata

Niigata: Tracing the history of breeding from Joetsu

In Niigata, starting from the Iwanohara Vineyard in Joetsu, we want to trace the breeding work of Zenbei Kawakami. Follow how the varieties selected through breeding are used in today’s Zenbei blends.

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Japan / Regions↗

Osaka

Osaka: Viticulture in Kawachi and the GI

In Osaka, start with the Kawachi area such as Kashiwara, Habikino, and Taishi Town. Use a map to locate the vineyards of Kawachi and read about the winemaking of Delaware, also known as a table grape.

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Japan / Regions↗

Kyushu and Tsuno

Kyushu: Understanding the adaptations of warm-climate areas from Tsuno

Use Tsuno in Miyazaki Prefecture as an entry point for studying wines of Kyushu. From Tsuno's cultivation records, consider vineyard management to prepare for rain and typhoons and the selection of varieties.

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Japan / Appellations & winemaking↗

Koshu sur lie

Kōshū Sur Lie: Interpreting contact with lees

Using Lumière Koshu Sur Lie 2024 as an example, consider separately the characteristics of the variety and the aging process. Contact with lees is a separate choice from skin maceration or barrel aging.

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Japan / Producers↗

Iwanohara Zenbei 2022

Zenbei 2022: Three varieties and new oak/old oak

Simply stating 'Muscat Bailey A-based' does not convey the full design of this red wine. Read the ratios of the three varieties alongside the specific barrel types used for each.

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Japan / Appellations & winemaking↗

Growing grapes in rain

Measures for rain: canopies and vineyard drainage

Dealing with rain does not end with installing a single piece of equipment. Consider separately the measures to keep grape clusters dry and the drainage of water from the vineyard.

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France / Overview↗

France: sea, mountains & rivers

France from the perspective of sea, mountains, and rivers

Bordeaux, Alsace, the Loire, and the Rhône: Even within France, the sea’s influence, the position of the mountains, and the riverine terrain differ. Check the regions on a map and compare the environments in which grapes grow.

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France / Appellations & winemaking↗

Origin, appellations & classifications

AOC, AOP, IGP, and region-specific classifications

AOC, AOP, Grand Cru, château classifications. Separate what label terms indicate: area, production conditions, vineyard, or producer.

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France / Appellations & winemaking↗

Climats, lieux-dits & crus

Interpreting climat and Cru

In Burgundy, Climat does not refer to general climate but to a named vineyard plot. Read without conflating place name, classification, and ownership.

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France / Appellations & winemaking↗

Tirage, lees, disgorgement & dosage

Champagne process breakdown

The sugar added at tirage and the dosage sugar serve different purposes. Trace the steps in order: second fermentation, aging on lees, disgorgement, and finishing.

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France / Appellations & winemaking↗

Concentration, fermentation & mutage

Compare mechanisms by which sweetness is retained

Late harvest, noble rot, drying, mutage. Vocabulary for sweet wine production includes both manipulations that change the grapes and interventions in the fermentation process.

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France / Grapes↗

Cabernet Sauvignon & Merlot

Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot

The two Bordeaux varieties can be compared not only with descriptive adjectives but also based on their ripening times and vineyard conditions. Confirm what remains constant in the blends and what changes.

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France / Grapes↗

Pinot Noir

Burgundy produces reds, while Champagne also produces white sparkling wines. How to handle black grape skins links the different wine styles from the same variety.

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France / Grapes↗

Chardonnay

Chablis, Côte de Beaune, Champagne. Even though all these white wines are made from Chardonnay, site conditions, fermentation vessels, and whether or not the wine is sparkling all differ.

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France / Grapes↗

Sauvignon Blanc

Comparing Loire and Bordeaux whites means there are occasions to consider the same variety on its own and as a blend.

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France / Grapes↗

Chenin Blanc

Dry, sweet, and sparkling. With Chenin from the Loire, you can study differences in harvest and fermentation using a single grape.

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France / Grapes↗

Syrah & Grenache

Syrah and Grenache

Two black grape varieties that link the Northern and Southern Rhône. Compare differences in grape varieties, as well as differences between single-varietal wines and blends separately.

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France / Grapes↗

Riesling

White grape varieties in Alsace vineyards. After adding place names and dry/sweet information to the grape variety name, compare them.

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France / Grapes↗

Gamay

From the name Nouveau to Morgon and Moulin-à-Vent. Even for the same Gamay grape, choices regarding vineyard and extraction or maturation will differ.

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France / Regions↗

Bordeaux

Once you’ve learned Left and Right Bank, link rivers and blends. Bordeaux includes not just reds, but also dry and sweet whites.

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France / Regions↗

Bourgogne

Burgundy

Even with the same Pinot Noir or Chardonnay, the place name on the label can range from regional to village to vineyard. First line up the places the name refers to by scope.

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France / Regions↗

Champagne

Champagne is both a region name and an appellation. The term cannot be used based solely on the method of secondary fermentation in bottle.

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France / Regions↗

Vallée de la Loire

Loire

From Muscadet at the river mouth, to Anjou, Saumur, Touraine, and the Central Vineyards. As you follow the river, both the white grape varieties and the wine styles change.

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France / Regions↗

Vallée du Rhône

Rhône

Northern Rhône Syrah-based blends, and Southern Grenache-based blends. Even along the same river, the landscape and grape composition change.

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France / Regions↗

Alsace

Vineyards extending east of the Vosges Mountains. In addition to noting that this is a northeastern region, read about the conditions where the mountains block rainfall.

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France / Regions↗

Beaujolais

Do not memorize Gamay’s regions only by Nouveau. Let names such as Morgon and Moulin-à-Vent guide you towards vineyard and maturation differences.

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France / Regions↗

Provence

When you see a pale rosé, do not determine its lightness or sweetness by color alone; check the variety and how the skins are handled. Conditions also differ between coastal and inland vineyards.

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France / Regions↗

Languedoc

From coastal plains to inland hills. Compare broad Languedoc and more restricted appellations, distinguishing the range of place names.

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France / Regions↗

Roussillon

Banyuls and Rivesaltes sweet wines, alongside dry reds, whites, and rosés. In Roussillon, how fermentation is handled, as well as the grape varieties, is key for comparison.

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France / Regions↗

Jura

Savagnin is a grape variety; Vin Jaune is a wine defined by its production and requirements. Differentiating the two names is the starting point for comparing Jura whites.

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France / Regions↗

Savoie

Alpine wines are not always from vineyards at high peaks. Vineyards of Jacquère, Altesse, Mondeuse and others are scattered on slopes near valleys and lakes.

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France / Regions↗

Sud-Ouest

Southwestern region

Malbec in Cahors, Tannat in Madiran, and Manseng varieties in Jurançon. Do not consider the South-West simply as an extension of Bordeaux.

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France / Regions↗

Corse

Corsica

Niellucciu, Sciacarellu, Vermentinu. Understand the Mediterranean island through its indigenous names and vineyard locations.

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France / Regions↗

Chablis

Chablis is not the name of a grape, but of a place and appellation in northern Burgundy. From that shared Chardonnay, explore site and classification differences.

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France / Producers↗

Château Margaux

Even at the same château, the blend and harvest timing differ between 2021 and 2022. Link the Cabernet Sauvignon percentages of 87% and 92% to vineyard decisions and selection criteria.

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France / Producers↗

Maison Joseph Drouhin

Joseph Drouhin

Use Clos des Mouches to demonstrate separating the vineyard name and producer. Comparing Drouhin’s red and white, and Chanson’s white shows that differences worth considering can remain even with the same name.

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France / Producers↗

Champagne Bollinger

Bollinger

Pinot Noir 60% in the Special Cuvée, and 61% in the La Grande Année 2014. Even with similar varietal percentages, the comparison focus shifts based on how the harvest years are combined and the winemaking and aging.

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Italy / Overview↗

A geography of wine

The latitudes, elevations, and seas that divide Italy’s wine regions

Sicily also has vineyards at high altitudes. When you add mountains and the sea to the map often summarized as "cooler in the north, warmer in the south," the differences between regions become apparent.

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Italy / Overview↗

Land, people & history

The history of viticulture and the path to today's wine regions

Even in regions with a long winemaking history, the current grape varieties or appellations have not necessarily been carried through unchanged. Different evidence is needed both for the history of viticulture and for the origins of today's wines.

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Italy / Appellations & winemaking↗

Understanding appellations

DOCG, DOC, IGT and EU Geographical Indications

DOCG, DOC, and IGT are familiar indicators on labels. Comparing them with the EU's DOP and IGP makes it easier to organize which names are protected and what is required to use them.

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Italy / Appellations & winemaking↗

Reading the label

Label: Classico, Riserva, MGA, UGA

Even if Riserva and UGA are listed together on the same label, they indicate different information. One refers to production conditions such as aging; the other refers to land. Starting from the appellation, you can distinguish the role of each term.

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Italy / Appellations & winemaking↗

Appassimento & Ripasso

Production methods for Amarone, Recioto, and Ripasso

From dried grapes, both dry Amarone and sweet Recioto can be made. The difference is not explained by drying alone—it is necessary to also follow what happens to the sugar during fermentation.

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Italy / Appellations & winemaking↗

Two paths to sparkling wine

Differences between second fermentation in the bottle and the tank method.

Both Franciacorta and Prosecco have bubbles. By comparing where fermentation takes place, the grape varieties used, and the time spent on lees, you’ll understand the differences in sparkling wine production.

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Italy / Appellations & winemaking↗

Extraction & ageing

Extraction from the skins and barrel aging

The extraction of color and tannin from the skins and the aging in barrels are different processes. When a producer mentions “time,” check which step is being referred to.

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Italy / Grapes↗

Nebbiolo

Both Barolo and Barbaresco are made from Nebbiolo. Further north in Valtellina, it is known as Chiavennasca. By tracking the same variety, you see wine regions shift from the hills to the Alpine slopes.

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Italy / Grapes↗

Sangiovese

Sangiovese is the flagship variety of Tuscany, but it is also widespread in Romagna. Comparing Brunello and Chianti Classico highlights not only differences in their respective lands but also in authorized blends.

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Italy / Grapes↗

Aglianico

The representative regions for Aglianico are Taurasi in Campania and Vulture in Basilicata. When tracing southern Italy’s black grapes, you’ll find they often come from inland hills, not coastal areas.

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Italy / Grapes↗

Nerello Mascalese

Nerello Mascalese, the flagship red variety of Etna. Even around the same volcano, conditions differ between the northern and eastern slopes. Beyond being simply “volcanic”, there are also differences by slope.

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Italy / Grapes↗

Vermentino

Vermentino is a white grape connecting Sardinia with the coasts of Liguria and Tuscany. Even within the same island, the boundaries of the Gallura and Sardegna appellations differ.

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Italy / Grapes↗

Verdicchio

Castelli di Jesi and Matelica. These two regions in Marche both grow Verdicchio, but they differ in distance from the sea and the shape of the valleys. Because they share the same grape variety, the differences in location are easier to compare.

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Italy / Grapes↗

Glera

Glera is the grape variety; Prosecco is the name of the appellation that includes the region. By distinguishing these two terms on the label, you can also clarify the difference between the wide-ranging Prosecco DOC and the hilly DOCG.

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Italy / Grapes↗

Fiano

The region of Fiano di Avellino is in inland Irpinia, Campania. This grape variety shows that southern Italian white wines cannot be explained solely by coastal warmth.

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Italy / Grapes↗

Montepulciano

Montepulciano is the name for both a black grape variety and a town in Tuscany. The same word on a label can refer to a grape in one case and a location in another, producing different wines.

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Italy / Grapes↗

Primitivo

There are two representative origins for Primitivo in Puglia: Manduria and Gioia del Colle. Even though the grape variety is the same, the site and distance from the sea differ.

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Italy / Grapes↗

Carricante

Carricante, the emblematic white of Etna. Comparing it to the red Nerello Mascalese shows that even within the same volcanic region, there are wines from different varieties and growing locations.

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Italy / Grapes↗

Corvina

Corvina is the key black grape in Valpolicella wines. Even for blends from the same area, the use of grape drying and refermentation leads to significant differences in production method.

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Italy / Regions↗

Barolo DOCG

Barolo

Barolo is both the name of a village and the designation for wines spanning several comuni. The map showing just the village and the map of the production zone cover different areas.

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Italy / Regions↗

Barbaresco DOCG

Barbaresco

Barbaresco and Barolo are both made from Nebbiolo. Despite sharing the same variety, the boundaries and aging rules differ. Comparing these neighboring appellations helps clarify their distinctions.

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Italy / Regions↗

Chianti Classico DOCG

Chianti Classico

Chianti Classico spreads across the hills between Florence and Siena. It is an independent appellation from Chianti, and UGA is a system for further indicating areas within the Classico zone.

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Italy / Regions↗

Brunello di Montalcino DOCG

Brunello di Montalcino

Brunello is a red wine made from Sangiovese grown in Montalcino. Even though sharing the same town name, the surrounding slopes differ in aspect and elevation.

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Italy / Regions↗

Etna DOC

Etna

Etna is a single volcano, but vineyards around its slopes do not all share the same conditions. The direction of the slope, elevation, and the history of lava flows combine to form the regions for both red and white wines.

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Italy / Regions↗

Valpolicella

Valpolicella has both regional indications like Classico and wines with different production methods like Amarone and Ripasso. Separating the place names from the production methods helps organize the complex naming system.

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Italy / Regions↗

Franciacorta DOCG

Franciacorta

Franciacorta, south of Lake Iseo, is a region known for bottle-fermented sparkling wine. Even under the same appellation, grape varieties used, lees aging, and other conditions differ by type.

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Italy / Regions↗

Conegliano Valdobbiadene Prosecco DOCG

Conegliano Valdobbiadene

The hills stretching from Conegliano to Valdobbiadene form one of the production areas for Prosecco. The long denomination names indicate a geographic area distinct from that of the broad Prosecco DOC.

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Italy / Regions↗

Taurasi DOCG

Taurasi

Taurasi is a Campanian inland red wine based mainly on Aglianico. Compared to Vulture, which uses the same grape, you see that there are diverse regions with hillsides even within southern Italy.

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Italy / Producers↗

Produttori del Barbaresco

Several growers collaborate to make Barbaresco at a single winery. With Produttori, you can learn about the work of a cooperative through both vineyard-designated wines and blends from multiple vineyard sites.

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Italy / Producers↗

Biondi-Santi

Biondi-Santi, based at Tenuta Greppo in Montalcino. Their history, including wines dating back to 1888, traces the development of Brunello and their commitment to maturation.

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Italy / Producers↗

Cantina Terlano / Kellerei Terlan

Cantina Terlano

Cantina Terlano is a cooperative winery bringing together growers in Alto Adige. It has a history of focusing on white wines even at times when reds dominated the area, reflecting differences within the province.

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Italy / Producers↗

Benanti

Benanti’s wines are linked to several slopes of Etna. Milo's Carricante is one of them. By keeping the producer consistent, you can compare the combinations of vineyards and grape varieties.

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